Category: Lesson
Blessed Ambrose of Siena
Although his birth was attended by the prodigies also associated with Blessed James of Bevagna (of Mevania)–that of three brilliant stars bearing the image of a friar preacher–Ambrose Sansedoni got off to a very bad start by the world’s account. He was so badly deformed and so ugly that his own mother could hardly bear to look at him.
He was given into the care of a nurse, who daily took him with her to the Dominican church where she attended Mass. Here it was remarked that the baby, who fretted most of the time, was quiet and content when the nurse would hold him near the altar of relics, and that he cried violently when taken away.
One day, as the nurse was kneeling there with the baby’s face covered with a scarf, a pilgrim approached and said to her, “Do not cover that child’s face. He will one day be the glory of this city.” A few days later, at this same altar, a miracle occurred. The unfortunate child suddenly reached out his twisted limbs and quite distinctly pronounced the sacred name of Jesus. At once, all deformity left him, and he became a normal child.
So early marked with the favor of God, it was only natural that Ambrose would be pious. As a child of seven he would rise at night to pray and meditate, and he daily recited the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin. While still a child, he was charitable to a heroic degree, and busied himself with the poor, the abandoned, and the sick. When he was only two or three years old, his father, who was an illuminator of books, made two little books for him. One was on secular subjects, the other on the saints. Ambrose made no hesitation about choosing the latter as his favorite, and throughout his life he was to exhibit this same choice of the things of God.
Being a handsome and talented young man, Ambrose was beset with difficulties when he expressed his intention of becoming a member of the preaching friars. Parents and friends tried to change his mind, and the devil appeared in several different forms to counsel him against such a step. Ambrose courageously overcame all the obstacles in his path and joined the friars on his 17th birthday.
After his profession in 1237, Ambrose was sent to Paris to study under Saint Albert the Great. With his fellow pupil, Saint Thomas Aquinas, he returned to Cologne with Saint Albert, and thus was associated for some years with the two finest minds of the century. It is said that the humility of Ambrose, and his recognition of the true greatness of Saint Thomas’s writings, led him to devote his time to preaching rather than writing. He was sent on many peace-making missions during his 30 years of preaching, and was highly regarded by both popes and Dominicans.
Despite a very active apostolate of preaching in Germany, France, and Italy, Ambrose lived a life of almost uninterrupted prayer. He was often in ecstasy, and, shortly before his death, he was favored with several visions of great beauty. It is said that his death was hastened by the vehemence of his preaching. Sometimes when he preached he levitated and a circle of glory, in which birds of brilliant plumage flitted, surrounded him. Many miracles were reported at his tomb, and he has been popularly called “Saint Ambrose of Siena” since the time of his death (Benedictines, Dorcy).
Born: 1220 at Siena, Italy
Died: 1287 of natural causes
Beatified: 1622 (cultus confirmed)
Patronage: betrothed couples, affianced couples, engaged couples, Siena Italy
Representation: Dominican with a dove at his ear, holding a model of Siena, Italy, holding a book, preaching
Saint Thomas Aquinas
The great outlines and all the important events of his life are known, but biographers differ as to some details and dates. Death prevented Henry Denifle from executing his project of writing a critical life of the saint. Denifle’s friend and pupil, Dominic Prümmer, O.P., professor of theology in the University of Fribourg, Switzerland, took up the work and published the “Fontes Vitae S. Thomae Aquinatis, notis historicis et criticis illustrati”; and the first fascicle (Toulouse, 1911) has appeared, giving the life of St. Thomas by Peter Calo (1300) now published for the first time. From Tolomeo of Lucca . . . we learn that at the time of the saint’s death there was a doubt about his exact age (Prümmer, op. cit., 45). The end of 1225 is usually assigned as the time of his birth. Father Prümmer, on the authority of Calo, thinks 1227 is the more probable date (op. cit., 28). All agree that he died in 1274.
Landulph, his father, was Count of Aquino; Theodora, his mother, Countess of Teano. His family was related to the Emperors Henry VI and Frederick II, and to the Kings of Aragon, Castile, and France. Calo relates that a holy hermit foretold his career, saying to Theodora before his birth: “He will enter the Order of Friars Preachers, and so great will be his learning and sanctity that in his day no one will be found to equal him” (Prümmer, op. cit., 18). At the age of five, according to the custom of the times, he was sent to receive his first training from the Benedictine monks of Monte Cassino. Diligent in study, he was thus early noted as being meditative and devoted to prayer, and his preceptor was surprised at hearing the child ask frequently: “What is God?”
About the year 1236 he was sent to the University of Naples. Calo says that the change was made at the instance of the Abbot of Monte Cassino, who wrote to Thomas’s father that a boy of such talents should not be left in obscurity (Prümmcr, op. cit., 20). At Naples his preceptors were Pietro Martini and Petrus Hibernus. The chronicler says that he soon surpassed Martini at grammar, and he was then given over to Peter of Ireland, who trained him in logic and the natural sciences. The customs of the times divided the liberal arts into two courses: the Trivium, embracing grammar, logic, and rhetoric; the Quadrivium, comprising music, mathematics, geometry, and astronomy . . . . Thomas could repeat the lessons with more depth and lucidity than his masters displayed. The youth’s heart had remained pure amidst the corruption with which he was surrounded, and he resolved to embrace the religious life.
Some time between 1240 and August, 1243, he received the habit of the Order of St. Dominic, being attracted and directed by John of St. Julian, a noted preacher of the convent of Naples. The city wondered that such a noble young man should don the garb of poor friar. His mother, with mingled feelings of joy and sorrow, hastened to Naples to see her son. The Dominicans, fearing she would take him away, sent him to Rome, his ultimate destination being Paris or Cologne. At the instance of Theodora, Thomas’s brothers, who were soldiers under the Emperor Frederick, captured the novice near the town of Aquapendente and confined him in the fortress of San Giovanni at Rocca Secca. Here he was detained nearly two years, his parents, brothers, and sisters endeavouring by various means to destroy his vocation. The brothers even laid snares for his virtue, but the pure-minded novice drove the temptress from his room with a brand which he snatched from the fire. Towards the end of his life, St. Thomas confided to his faithful friend and companion, Reginald of Piperno, the secret of a remarkable favour received at this time. When the temptress had been driven from his chamber, he knelt and most earnestly implored God to grant him integrity of mind and body. He fell into a gentle sleep, and, as he slept, two angels appeared to assure him that his prayer had been heard. They then girded him about with a white girdle, saying: “We gird thee with the girdle of perpetual virginity.” And from that day forward he never experienced the slightest motions of concupiscence.
The time spent in captivity was not lost. His mother relented somewhat, after the first burst of anger and grief; the Dominicans were allowed to provide him with new habits, and through the kind offices of his sister he procured some books — the Holy Scriptures, Aristotle’s Metaphysics, and the “Sentences” of Peter Lombard. After eighteen months or two years spent in prison, either because his mother saw that the hermit’s prophecy would eventually be fulfilled or because his brothers feared the threats of Innocent IV and Frederick II, he was set at liberty, being lowered in a basket into the arms of the Dominicans, who were delighted to find that during his captivity “he had made as much progress as if he had been in a studium generale” (Calo, op. cit., 24).
Thomas immediately pronounced his vows, and his superiors sent him to Rome. Innocent IV examined closely into his motives in joining the Friars Preachers, dismissed him with a blessing, and forbade any further interference with his vocation. John the Teutonic, fourth master general of the order, took the young student to Paris and, according to the majority of the saint’s biographers, to Cologne, where he arrived in 1244 or 1245, and was placed under Albertus Magnus, the most renowned professor of the order. In the schools Thomas’s humility and taciturnity were misinterpreted as signs of dullness, but when Albert had heard his brilliant defence of a difficult thesis, he exclaimed: “We call this young man a dumb ox, hut his bellowing in doctrine will one day resound throughout the world.”
In 1245 Albert was sent to Paris, and Thomas accompanied him as a student. In 1248 both returned to Cologne. Albert had been appointed regent of the new studium generale, erected that year by the general chapter of the order, and Thomas was to teach under him as Bachelor. (On the system of graduation in the thirteenth century see ORDER OF PREACHERS — II, A, 1, d). During his stay in Cologne, probably in 1250, he was raised to the priesthood by Conrad of Hochstaden, archbishop of that city. Throughout his busy life, he frequently preached the Word of God, in Germany, France, and Italy. His sermons were forceful, redolent of piety, full of solid instruction, abounding in apt citations from the Scriptures.
In the year 1251 or 1252 the master general of the order, by the advice of Albertus Magnus and Hugo a S. Charo (Hugh of St. Cher), sent Thomas to fill the office of Bachelor (sub-regent) in the Dominican studium at Paris. This appointment may be regarded as the beginning of his public career, for his teaching soon attracted the attention both of the professors and of the students. His duties consisted principally in explaining the “Sentences” of Peter Lombard, and his commentaries on that text-book of theology furnished the materials and, in great part, the plan for his chief work, the “Summa theologica”.
In due time he was ordered to prepare himself to obtain the degree of Doctor in Theology from the University of Paris, but the conferring of the degree was postponed, owing to a dispute between the university and the friars. The conflict, originally a dispute between the university and the civic authorities, arose from the slaying of one of the students and the wounding of three others by the city guard. The university, jealous of its autonomy, demanded satisfaction, which was refused. The doctors closed their schools, solemnly swore that they would not reopen them until their demands were granted, and decreed that in future no one should be admitted to the degree of Doctor unless he would take an oath to follow the same line of conduct under similar circumstances. The Dominicans and Franciscans, who had continued to teach in their schools, refused to take the prescribed oath, and from this there arose a bitter conflict which was at its height when St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure were ready to be presented for their degrees. William of St-Amour extended the dispute beyond the original question, violently attacked the friars, of whom he was evidently jealous, and denied their right to occupy chairs in the university. Against his book, “De periculis novissimorum temporum” (The Perils of the Last Times), St. Thomas wrote a treatise “Contra impugnantes religionem”, an apology for the religious orders (Touron, op. cit., II, cc. vii sqq.). The book of William of St-Amour was condemned by Alexander IV at Anagni, 5 October, 1256, and the pope gave orders that the mendicant friars should be admitted to the doctorate.
About this time St. Thomas also combated a dangerous book, “The Eternal Gospel” (Touron, op. cit., II, cxii). The university authorities did not obey immediately; the influence of St. Louis IX and eleven papal Briefs were required before peace was firmly established, and St. Thomas was admitted to the degree of Doctor in Theology. The date of his promotion, as given by many biographers, was 23 October, 1257. His theme was “The Majesty of Christ”. His text, “Thou waterest the hills from thy upper rooms: the earth shall be filled with the fruit of thy works” (Psalm 103:13), said to have been suggested by a heavenly visitor, seems to have been prophetic of his career. A tradition says that St. Bonaventure and St. Thomas received the doctorate on the same day, and that there was a contest of humility between the two friends as to which should be promoted first.
From this time St. Thomas’s life may be summed up in a few words: praying, preaching, teaching, writing, journeying. Men were more anxious to hear him than they had been to hear Albert, whom St. Thomas surpassed in accuracy, lucidity, brevity, and power of exposition, if not in universality of knowledge. Paris claimed him as her own; the popes wished to have him near them; the studia of the order were eager to enjoy the benefit of his teaching; hence we find him successively at Anagni, Rome, Bologna, Orvieto, Viterbo, Perugia, in Paris again, and finally in Naples, always teaching and writing, living on earth with one passion, an ardent zeal for the explanation and defence of Christian truth. So devoted was he to his sacred task that with tears he begged to be excused from accepting the Archbishopric of Naples, to which he was appointed by Clement IV in 1265. Had this appointment been accepted, most probably the “Summa theologica” would not have been written.
Yielding to the requests of his brethren, he on several occasions took part in the deliberations of the general chapters of the order. One of these chapters was held in London in 1263. In another held at Valenciennes (1259) he collaborated with Albertus Magnus and Peter of Tarentasia (afterwards Pope Innocent V) in formulating a system of studies which is substantially preserved to this day in the studia generalia of the Dominican Order (cf. Douais, op. cit.).
It is not surprising to read in the biographies of St. Thomas that he was frequently abstracted and in ecstasy. Towards the end of his life the ecstasies became more frequent. On one occasion, at Naples in 1273, after he had completed his treatise on the Eucharist, three of the brethren saw him lifted in ecstasy, and they heard a voice proceeding from the crucifix on the altar, saying “Thou hast written well of me, Thomas; what reward wilt thou have?” Thomas replied, “None other than Thyself, Lord” (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 38). Similar declarations are said to have been made at Orvieto and at Paris.
On 6 December, 1273, he laid aside his pen and would write no more. That day he experienced an unusually long ecstasy during Mass; what was revealed to him we can only surmise from his reply to Father Reginald, who urged him to continue his writings: “I can do no more. Such secrets have been revealed to me that all I have written now appears to be of little value” (modica, Prümmer, op. cit., p. 43). The “Summa theologica” had been completed only as far as the ninetieth question of the third part (De partibus poenitentiae).
Thomas began his immediate preparation for death. Gregory X, having convoked a general council, to open at Lyons on 1 May, 1274, invited St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure to take part in the deliberations, commanding the former to bring to the council his treatise “Contra errores Graecorum” (Against the Errors of the Greeks). He tried to obey, setting out on foot in January, 1274, but strength failed him; he fell to the ground near Terracina, whence he was conducted to the Castle of Maienza the home of his niece the Countess Francesca Ceccano. The Cistercian monks of Fossa Nuova pressed him to accept their hospitality, and he was conveyed to their monastery, on entering which he whispered to his companion: “This is my rest for ever and ever: here will I dwell, for I have chosen it” (Psalm 131:14). When Father Reginald urged him to remain at the castle, the saint replied: “If the Lord wishes to take me away, it is better that I be found in a religious house than in the dwelling of a lay person.” The Cistercians were so kind and attentive that Thomas’s humility was alarmed. “Whence comes this honour”, he exclaimed, “that servants of God should carry wood for my fire!” At the urgent request of the monks he dictated a brief commentary on the Canticle of Canticles.
The end was near; extreme unction was administered. When the Sacred Viaticum was brought into the room he pronounced the following act of faith:
If in this world there be any knowledge of this sacrament stronger than that of faith, I wish now to use it in affirming that I firmly believe and know as certain that Jesus Christ, True God and True Man, Son of God and Son of the Virgin Mary, is in this Sacrament . . . I receive Thee, the price of my redemption, for Whose love I have watched, studied, and laboured. Thee have I preached; Thee have I taught. Never have I said anything against Thee: if anything was not well said, that is to be attributed to my ignorance. Neither do I wish to be obstinate in my opinions, but if I have written anything erroneous concerning this sacrament or other matters, I submit all to the judgment and correction of the Holy Roman Church, in whose obedience I now pass from this life.
He died on 7 March, 1274. Numerous miracles attested his sanctity, and he was canonized by John XXII, 18 July, 1323. The monks of Fossa Nuova were anxious to keep his sacred remains, but by order of Urban V the body was given to his Dominican brethren, and was solemnly translated to the Dominican church at Toulouse, 28 January, 1369. A magnificent shrine erected in 1628 was destroyed during the French Revolution, and the body was removed to the Church of St. Sernin, where it now reposes in a sarcophagus of gold and silver, which was solemnly blessed by Cardinal Desprez on 24 July, 1878. The chief bone of his left arm is preserved in the cathedral of Naples. The right arm, bestowed on the University of Paris, and originally kept in the St. Thomas’s Chapel of the Dominican church, is now preserved in the Dominican Church of S. Maria Sopra Minerva in Rome, whither it was transferred during the French Revolution.
A description of the saint as he appeared in life is given by Calo (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 401), who says that his features corresponded with the greatness of his soul. He was of lofty stature and of heavy build, but straight and well proportioned. His complexion was “like the colour of new wheat”: his head was large and well shaped, and he was slightly bald. All portraits represent him as noble, meditative, gentle yet strong. St. Pius V proclaimed St. Thomas a Doctor of the Universal Church in the year 1567. In the Encyclical “Aeterni Patris”, of 4 August, 1879, on the restoration of Christian philosophy, Leo XIII declared him “the prince and master of all Scholastic doctors”. The same illustrious pontiff, by a Brief dated 4 August, 1880, designated him patron of all Catholic universities, academies, colleges, and schools throughout the world.
IIa. WRITINGS (GENERAL REMARKS)
Although St. Thomas lived less than fifty years, he composed more than sixty works, some of them brief, some very lengthy. This does not necessarily mean that every word in the authentic works was written by his hand; he was assisted by secretaries, and biographers assure us that he could dictate to several scribes at the same time. Other works, some of which were composed by his disciples, have been falsely attributed to him.
In the “Scriptores Ordinis Praedicatorum” (Paris, 1719) Fr. Echard devotes eighty-six folio pages to St. Thomas’s works, the different editions and translations (I, pp. 282-348). Touron (op. cit., pp. 69 sqq.) says that manuscript copies were found in nearly all the libraries of Europe, and that, after the invention of printing, copies were multiplied rapidly in Germany, Italy, and France, portions of the “Summa theologica” being one of the first important works printed. Peter Schöffer, a printer of Mainz, published the “Secunda Secundae” in 1467. This is the first known printed copy of any work of St. Thomas. The first complete edition of the “Summa” was printed at Basle, in 1485. Many other editions of this and of other works were published in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, especially at Venice and at Lyons. The principal editions of all the work (Opera Omnia) were published as follows: Rome, 1570; Venice, 1594, 1612, 1745; Antwerp, 1612; Paris, 1660, 1871-80 (Vives); Parma, 1852-73; Rome, 1882 (the Leonine). The Roman edition of 1570, called “the Piana”, because edited by order of St. Pius V, was the standard for many years. Besides a carefully revised text it contained the commentaries of Cardinal Cajetan and the valuable “Tabula Aurea” of Peter of Bergamo. The Venetian edition of 1612 was highly prized because the text was accompanied by the Cajetan-Porrecta commentaries . . . . The Leonine edition, begun under the patronage of Leo XIII, now continued under the master general of the Dominicans, undoubtedly will be the most perfect of all. Critical dissertations on each work will be given, the text will be carefully revised, and all references will be verified. By direction of Leo XIII (Motu Proprio, 18 Jan., 1880) the “Summa contra gentiles” will be published with the commentaries of Sylvester Ferrariensis, whilst the commentaries of Cajetan go with the “Summa theologica”.
The latter has been published, being volumes IV-XII of the edition (last in 1906). St. Thomas’s works may be classified as philosophical, theological, scriptural, and apologetic, or controversial. The division, however, cannot always be rigidly maintained. The “Summa theologica”, e.g., contains much that is philosophical, whilst the “Summa contra gentiles” is principally, but not exclusively, philosophical and apologetic. His philosophical works are chiefly commentaries on Aristotle, and his first important theological writings were commentaries on Peter Lombard’s four books of “Sentences”; but he does not slavishly follow either the Philosopher or the Master of the Sentences (on opinions of the Lombard rejected by theologians, see Migne, 1841, edition of the “Summa” I, p. 451).
IIb. WRITINGS (HIS PRINCIPAL WORKS)
Amongst the works wherein St. Thomas’s own mind and method are shown, the following deserve special mention:
(1) “Quaestiones disputatae” (Disputed Questions) — These were more complete treatises on subjects that had not been fully elucidated in the lecture halls, or concerning which the professor’s opinion had been sought. They are very valuable, because in them the author, free from limitations as to time or space, freely expresses his mind and gives all arguments for or against the opinions adopted. These treatises, containing the questions “De potentia”, “De malo”, “De spirit. creaturis”, “De anima”, “De unione Verbi Incarnati”, “De virt. in communi”, “De caritate”, “De corr. fraterna”, “De spe”, “De virt. cardinal.”, “De veritate”, were often reprinted, e.g. recently by the Association of St. Paul (2 vols., Paris and Fribourg, Switzerland, 1883).
(2) “Quodlibeta” (may be rendered “Various Subjects”, or “Free Discussions”) — They present questions or arguments proposed and answers given in or outside the lecture halls, chiefly in the more formal Scholastic exercises, termed circuli, conclusiones, or determinationes, which were held once or twice a year.
(3) “De unitate intellectus contra Averroistas” — This opusculum refuted a very dangerous and widespread error, viz., that there was but one soul for all men, a theory which did away wth individual liberty and responsibility.
(4) “Commentaria in Libros Sententiarum” (mentioned above) — This with the following work are the immediate forerunners of the “Summa theologica”.
(5) “Summa de veritate catholicae fidei contra gentiles” (Treatise on the Truth of the Catholic Faith, against Unbelievers) — This work, written at Rome, 1261-64, was composed at the request of St. Raymond of Pennafort, who desired to have a philosophical exposition and defence of the Christian Faith, to be used against the Jews and Moors in Spain. It is a perfect model of patient and sound apologetics, showing that no demonstrated truth (science) is opposed to revealed truth (faith). The best recent editions are those of Rome, 1878 (by Uccelli), of Paris and Fribourg, Switzerland, 1882, and of Rome, 1894. It has been translated into many languages. It is divided into four books: I. Of God as He is in Himself; II. Of God the Origin of Creatures; III. Of God the End of Creatures; IV. Of God in His Revelation. It is worthy of remark that the Fathers of the Vatican Council, treating the necessity of revelation (Coast. “Dei Filius”, c. 2), employed almost the very words used by St. Thomas in treating that subject in this work (I, cc. iv, V), and in the “Summa theologica” (I:1:1).
(6) Three works written by order of Urban IV —
| The “Opusculum contra errores Graecorum” refuted the errors of the Greeks on doctrines in dispute between them and the Roman Church, viz., the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, the primacy of the Roman pontiff, the Holy Eucharist, and purgatory. It was used against the Greeks with telling effect in the Council of Lyons (1274) and in the Council of Florence (1493). In the range of human reasonings on deep subjects there can be found nothing to surpass the sublimity and depth of the argument adduced by St. Thomas to prove that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and the Son (cf. Summa I:36:2); but it must be borne in mind that our Faith is not based on that argument alone. | |
| “Officium de festo Corporis Christi”. Mandonnet (Ecrits, p. 127) declares that it is now established beyond doubt that St. Thomas is the author of the beautiful Office of Corpus Christi, in which solid doctrine, tender piety, and enlightening Scriptural citations are combined, and expressed in language remarkably accurate, beautiful, chaste, and poetic. Here we find the well-known hymns, “Sacris Solemniis”, “Pange Lingua” (concluding in the “Tantum Ergo”), “Verbum Supernum” (concluding with the “O Salutaris Hostia”) and, in the Mass, the beautiful sequence “Lauda Sion”. In the responses of the office, St. Thomas places side by side words of the New Testament affirming the real presence of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament and texts from the Old Testament referring to the types and figures of the Eucharist. Santeuil, a poet of the seventeenth century, said he would give all the verses he had written for the one stanza of the “Verbum Supernum”: “Se nascens dedit socium, convescens in edulium: Se moriens in pretium, Se regnans dat in praemium” — “In birth, man’s fellow-man was He, His meat, while sitting at the Board: He died his Ransomer to be, He reigns to be his Great Reward” (tr. by Marquis of Bute). Perhaps the gem of the whole office is the antiphon “O Sacrum Convivium” (cf. Conway, “St. Thomas Aquinas”, London and New York, 1911, p. 61). | |
| The “Catena Aurea’ though not as original as his other writings, furnishes a striking proof of St. Thomas’s prodigious memory and manifests an intimate acquaintance with the Fathers of the Church. The work contains a series of passages selected from the writings of the various Fathers, arranged in such order that the texts cited form a running commentary on the Gospels. The commentary on St. Matthew was dedicated to Urban IV. An English translation of the “Catena Aurea was edited by John Henry Newman (4 vols., Oxford 1841-1845; see Vaughan, op. cit., vol. II,) pp. 529 sqq.. |
(7) The “Summa theologica” — This work immortalized St. Thomas. The author himself modestly considered it simply a manual of Christian doctrine for the use of students. In reality it is a complete scientifically arranged exposition of theology and at the same time a summary of Christian philosophy (see SUMMÆ). In the brief prologue St. Thomas first calls attention to the difficulties experienced by students of sacred doctrine in his day, the causes assigned being: the multiplication of useless questions, articles, and arguments; the lack of scientific order; frequent repetitions, “which beget disgust and confusion in the minds of learners”. Then he adds: “Wishing to avoid these and similar drawbacks, we shall endeavour, confiding in the Divine assistance, to treat of these things that pertain to sacred doctrine with brevity and clearness, in so far as the subject to he treated will permit.” In the introductory question, “On Sacred Doctrine”, he proves that, besides the knowledge which reason affords, Revelation also is necessary for salvation first, because without it men could not know the supenatural end to which they must tend by their voluntary acts; secondly, because, without Revelation, even the truths concerning God which could be proved by reason would be known “only by a few, after a long time, and with the admixture of many errors”. When revealed truths have been accepted, the mind of man proceeds to explain them and to draw conclusions from them. Hence results theology, which is a science, because it proceeds from principles that are certain (Answer 2). The object, or subject, of this science is God; other things are treated in it only in so far as they relate to God (Answer 7). Reason is used in theology not to prove the truths of faith, which are accepted on the authority of God, but to defend, explain, and develop the doctrines revealed (Answer 8). He thus announces the division of the “Summa”: “Since the chief aim of this sacred science is to give the knowledge of God, not only as He is in Himself, but also as He is the Beginning of all things, and the End of all, especially of rational creatures, we shall treat first of God; secondly, of the rational creature’s advance towards God (de motu creaturae rationalis in Deum); thirdly, of Christ, Who, as Man, is the way by which we tend to God.” God in Himself, and as He is the Creator; God as the End of all things, especially of man; God as the Redeemer — these are the leading ideas, the great headings, under which all that pertains to theology is contained.
(a) Sub-divisions
The First Part is divided into three tracts:
| On those things which pertain to the Essence of God; | |
| On the distinction of Persons in God (the mystery of the Trinity); | |
| On the production of creatures by God and on the creatures produced. |
The Second Part, On God as He is in the End of man, is sometimes called the Moral Theology of St. Thomas, i.e., his treatise on the end of man and on human acts. It is subdivided into two parts, known as the First Section of the Second (I-II, or 1a 2ae) and the Second of the Second (II-II, or 2a 2ae).
| The First of the Second. The first five questions are devoted to proving that man’s last end, his beatitude, consists in the possession of God. Man attains to that end or deviates from it by human acts, i.e. by free, deliberate acts. Of human acts he treats, first, in general (in all but the first five questions of the I-II), secondly, in particular (in the whole of the II-II). The treatise on human acts in general is divided into two parts: the first, on human acts in themselves; the other, on the principles or causes, extrinsic or intrinsic, of those acts. In these tracts and in the Second of the Second, St. Thomas, following Aristotle, gives a perfect description and a wonderfully keen analysis of the movements of man’s mind and heart. | |||||||
| The Second of the Second considers human acts, i.e., the virtues and vices, in particular. In it St. Thomas treats, first, of those things that pertain to all men, no matter what may be their station in life, and, secondly, of those things that pertain to some men only. Things that pertain to all men are reduced to seven headings: Faith, Hope, and Charity; Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, and Temperance. Under each title, in order to avoid repetitions, St. Thomas treats not only of the virtue itself, but also of the vices opposed to it, of the commandment to practise it, and of the gift of the Holy Ghost which corresponds to it. Things pertaining to some men only are reduced to three headings: the graces freely given (ratia gratis datae) to certain individuals for the good of the Church, such as the gifts of tongues, of prophecy, of miracles; the active and the contemplative life; the particular states of life, and duties of those who are in different states, especially bishops and religious.
The Third Part treats of Christ and of the benefits which He has conferred upon man, hence three tracts: On the Incarnation, and on what the Saviour did and suffered; On the Sacraments, which were instituted by Christ, and have their efficacy from His merits and sufferings; On Eternal Life, i.e., on the end of the world, the resurrection of bodies, judgment, the punishment of the wicked, the happiness of the just who, through Christ, attain to eternal life in heaven. Eight years were given to the composition of this work, which was begun at Rome, where the First Part and the First of the Second were written (1265-69). The Second of the Second, begun in Rome, was completed in Paris (1271). In 1272 St. Thomas went to Naples, where the Third Part was written, down to the ninetieth question of the tract On Penance (see Leonine edition, I, p. xlii). The work has been completed by the addition of a supplement, drawn from other writings of St. Thomas, attributed by some to Peter of Auvergne, by others to Henry of Gorkum. These attributions are rejected by the editors of the Leonine edition (XI, pp. viii, xiv, xviii). Mandonnet (op. cit., 153) inclines to the very probable opinion that it was compiled by Father Reginald de Piperno, the saint’s faithful companion and secretary. The entire “Summa” contains 38 Treatises, 612 Questions, subdivided into 3120 articles, in which about 10,000 objections are proposed and answered. So admirably is the promised order preserved that, by reference to the beginning of the Tracts and Questions, one can see at a glance what place it occupies in the general plan, which embraces all that can be known through theology of God, of man, and of their mutual relations . . . “The whole Summa is arranged on a uniform plan. Every subject is introduced as a question, and divided into articles. . . . Each article has also a uniform disposition of parts. The topic is introduced as an inquiry for discussion, under the term Utrum, whether — e.g. Utrum Deus sit? The objections against the proposed thesis are then stated. These are generally three or four in number, but sometimes extend to seven or more. The conclusion adopted is then introduced by the words, Respondeo dicendum. At the end of the thesis expounded the objections are answered, under the forms, ad primum, ad secundum, etc.” . . . . The “Summa” is Christian doctrine in scientific form; it is human reason rendering its highest service in defence and explanation of the truths of the Christian religion. It is the answer of the matured and saintly doctor to the question of his youth: What is God? Revelation, made known in the Scriptures and by tradition; reason and its best results; soundness and fulness of doctrine, order, conciseness and clearness of expression, effacement of self, the love of truth alone, hence a remarkable fairness towards adversaries and calmness in combating their errors; soberness and soundness of judgment, together with a charmingly tender and enlightened piety — these are all found in this “Summa” more than in his other writings, more than in the writings of his contemporaries, for “among the Scholastic doctors, the chief and master of all, towers Thomas Aquinas, who, as Cajetan observes (In 2am 2ae, Q. 148, a. 4) ‘because he most venerated the ancient doctors of the Church in a certain way seems to have inherited the intellect of all'” (Encyclical, “Aeterni Patris”, of Leo XIII). (b) Editions and Translations It is impossible to mention the various editions of the “Summa”, which has been in constant use for more than seven hundred years. Very few books have been so often republished. The first complete edition, printed at Basle in 1485, was soon followed by others, e.g., at Venice in 1505, 1509, 1588, 1594; at Lyons in 1520, 1541, 1547, 1548, 1581, 1588, 1624,1655; at Antwerp in 1575. These are enumerated by Touron (op. cit., p. 692), who says that about the same time other editions were published at Rome, Antwerp, Rouen, Paris, Douai, Cologne, Amsterdam, Bologna, etc. The editors of the Leonine edition deem worthy of mention those published at Paris in 1617, 1638, and 1648, at Lyons in 1663, 1677, and 1686, and a Roman edition of 1773 (IV, pp. xi, xii). Of all old editions they consider the most accurate two published at Padua, one in 1698, the other in 1712, and the Venice edition of 1755. Of recent editions the best are the following: the Leonine; the Migne editions (Paris, 1841, 1877); the first volume of the 1841 edition containing the “Libri quatuor sententiarum” of Peter Lombard; the very practical Faucher edition (5 vols. small quarto, Paris, 1887), dedicated to Cardinal Pecci, enriched with valuable notes; a Roman edition of 1894. The “Summa” has been translated into many modern languages as well.
IIc. WRITINGS (METHOD AND STYLE) It is not possible to characterize the method of St. Thomas by one word, unless it can be called eclectic. It is Aristotelean, Platonic, and Socratic; it is inductive and deductive; it is analytic and synthetic. He chose the best that could he found in those who preceded him, carefully sifting the chaff from the wheat, approving what was true, rejecting the false. His powers of synthesis were extraordinary. No writer surpassed him in the faculty of expressing in a few well-chosen words the truth gathered from a multitude of varying and conflicting opinions; and in almost every instance the student sees the truth and is perfectly satisfied with St. Thomas’s summary and statement. Not that he would have students swear by the words of a master. In philosophy, he says, arguments from authority are of secondary importance; philosophy does not consist in knowing what men have said, but in knowing the truth (In I lib. de Coelo, lect. xxii; II Sent., D. xiv, a. 2, ad 1um). He assigns its proper place to reason used in theology (see below: Influence of St. Thomas), but he keeps it within its own sphere. Against the Traditionalists the Holy See has declared that the method used by St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure does not lead to Rationalism (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1652). Not so bold or original in investigating nature as were Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon, he was, nevertheless, abreast of his time in science, and many of his opinions are of scientific value in the twentieth century. Take, for instance, the following: “In the same plant there is the two-fold virtue, active and passive, though sometimes the active is found in one and the passive in another, so that one plant is said to be masculine and the other feminine” (3 Sent., D. III, Q. ii, a 1). The style of St. Thomas is a medium between the rough expressiveness of some Scholastics and the fastidious elegance of John of Salisbury; it is remarkable for accuracy, brevity, and completeness. Pope Innocent VI (quoted in the Encyclical, “Aeterni Patris”, of Leo XIII) declared that, with the exception of the canonical writings, the works of St. Thomas surpass all others in “accuracy of expression and truth of statement” (habet proprietatem verborum, modum dicendorum, veritatem sententiarum). Great orators, such as Bossuet, Lacordaire, Monsabré, have studied his style, and have been influenced by it, but they could not reproduce it. The same is true of theological writers. Cajetan knew St. Thomas’s style better than any of his disciples, but Cajetan is beneath his great master in clearness and accuracy of expression, in soberness and solidity of judgment. St. Thomas did not attain to this perfection without an effort. He was a singularly blessed genius, but he was also an indefatigable worker, and by continued application he reached that stage of perfection in the art of writing where the art disappears. “The author’s manuscript of the Summa Contra Gentiles is still in great part extant. It is now in the Vatican Library. The manuscript consists of strips of parchment, of various shades of colour, contained in an old parchment cover to which they were originally stitched. The writing is in double column, and difficult to decipher, abounding in abbreviations, often passing into a kind of shorthand. Throughout many passages a line is drawn in sign of erasure” (Rickaby, Op. cit., preface: see Ucelli ed., “Sum. cont. gent.”, Rome, 1878).
III. INFLUENCES EXERTED ON ST. THOMAS How was this great genius formed? The causes that exerted an influence on St. Thomas were of two kinds, natural and supernatural.
A. Natural Causes (1) As a foundation, he “was a witty child, and had received a good soul” (Wisdom 8:19). From the beginning he manifested precocious and extraordinary talent and thoughtfulness beyond his years. (2) His education was such that great things might have been expected of him. His training at Monte Cassino, at Naples, Paris, and Cologne was the best that the thirteenth century could give, and that century was the golden age of education. That it afforded excellent opportunities for forming great philosophers and theologians is evident from the character of St. Thomas’s contemporaries. Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, St. Bonaventure, St. Raymond of Pennafort, Roger Bacon, Hugo a S. Charo, Vincent of Beauvais, not to mention scores of others, prove beyond all doubt that those were days of really great scholars. (See Walsh, “The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries”, New York, 1907.) The men who trained St. Thomas were his teachers at Monte Cassino and Naples, but above all Albertus Magnus, under whom he studied at Paris and Cologne. (3) The books that exercised the greatest influence on his mind were the Bible, the Decrees of the councils and of the popes, the works of the Fathers, Greek and Latin, especially of St. Augustine, the “Sentences” of Peter Lombard, the writings of the philosophers, especially of Plato, Aristotle, and Boethius. If from these authors any were to be selected for special mention, undoubtedly they would be Aristotle, St. Augustine, and Peter Lombard. In another sense the writings of St. Thomas were influenced by Averroes, the chief opponent whom he had to combat in order to defend and make known the true Aristotle. (4) It must be borne in mind that St. Thomas was blessed with a retentive memory and great powers of penetration. Father Daniel d’Agusta once pressed him to say what he considered the greatest grace he had ever received, sanctifying grace of course excepted. “I think that of having understood whatever I have read”, was the reply. St. Antoninus declared that “he remembered everything be had read, so that his mind was like a huge library” (cf. Drane, op. cit., p. 427; Vaughan, op. cit., II, p. 567). The bare enumeration of the texts of Scripture cited in the “Summa theologica” fills eighty small-print columns in the Migne edition, and by many it is not unreasonably supposed that he learned the Sacred Books by heart while he was imprisoned in the Castle of San Giovanni. Like St. Dominic he had a special love for the Epistles of St. Paul, on which he wrote commentaries (recent edition in 2 vols., Turin, 1891). (5) Deep reverence for the Faith, as made known by tradition, characterizes all his writings. The consuetudo ecclesiae — the practice of the Church — should prevail over the authority of any doctor (Summa II-II:10:12). In the “Summa” he quotes from 19 councils, 41 popes, and 52 Fathers of the Church. A slight acquaintance with his writings will show that among the Fathers his favourite was St. Augustine (on the Greek Fathers see Vaughan, op. cit., II, cc. iii sqq.). (6) With St. Augustine (II De doctr. Christ., c. xl), St. Thomas held that whatever there was of truth in the writings of pagan philosophers should be taken from them, as from “unjust possessors”, and adapted to the teaching of the true religion (Summa I:84:5). In the “Summa” alone he quotes from the writings of 46 philosophers and poets, his favourite authors being Aristotle, Plato, and, among Christian writers, Boethius. From Aristotle he learned that love of order and accuracy of expression which are characteristic of his own works. From Boethius he learned that Aristotle’s works could be used without detriment to Christianity. He did not follow Boethius in his vain attempt to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. In general the Stagirite was his master, but the elevation and grandeur of St. Thomas’s conceptions and the majestic dignity of his methods of treatment speak strongly of the sublime Plato.
B. Supernatural Causes Even if we do not accept as literally true the declaration of John XXII, that St. Thomas wrought as many miracles as there are articles in the “Summa”, we must, nevertheless, go beyond causes merely natural in attempting to explain his extraordinary career and wonderful writings. (1) Purity of mind and body contributes in no small degree to clearness of vision (see St. Thomas, “Commentaries on I Cor., c. vii”, Lesson v). By the gift of purity, miraculously granted at the time of the mystic girdling, God made Thomas’s life angelic; the perspicacity and depth of his intellect, Divine grace aiding, made him the “Angelic Doctor”. (2) The spirit of prayer, his great piety and devotion, drew down blessings on his studies. Explaining why he read, every day, portions of the “Conferences” of Cassian, he said: “In such reading I find devotion, whence I readily ascend to contemplation” (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 32). In the lessons of the Breviary read on his feast day it is explicitly stated that he never began to study without first invoking the assistance of God in prayer; and when he wrestled with obscure passages of the Scriptures, to prayer he added fasting. (3) Facts narrated by persons who either knew St. Thomas in life or wrote at about the time of his canonization prove that he received assistance from heaven. To Father Reginald he declared that he had learned more in prayer and contemplation than he had acquired from men or books (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 36). These same authors tell of mysterious visitors who came to encourage and enlighten him. The Blessed Virgin appeared, to assure him that his life and his writings were acceptable to God, and that he would persevere in his holy vocation. Sts. Peter and Paul came to aid him in interpreting an obscure passage in Isaias. When humility caused him to consider himself unworthy of the doctorate, a venerable religious of his order (supposed to be St. Dominic) appeared to encourage him and suggested the text for his opening discourse (Prümmer, op. cit., 29, 37; Tocco in “Acta SS.”, VII Mar.; Vaughan, op. cit., II, 91). His ecstasies have been mentioned. His abstractions in presence of King Louis IX (St. Louis) and of distinguished visitors are related by all biographers. Hence, even if allowance be made for great enthusiasm on the part of his admirers, we must conclude that his extraordinary learning cannot be attributed to merely natural causes. Of him it may truly be said that he laboured as if all depended on his own efforts and prayed as if all depended on God.
IVa. INFLUENCE OF ST. THOMAS (ON SANCTITY) The great Scholastics were holy as well as learned men. Alexander of Hales, St. Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas, and St. Bonaventure prove that learning does not necessarily dry up devotion. The angelic Thomas and the seraphic Bonaventure represent the highest types of Christian scholarship, combining eminent learning with heroic sanctity. Cardinal Bessarion called St. Thomas “the most saintly of learned men and the most learned of saints”. His works breathe the spirit of God, a tender and enlightened piety, built on a solid foundation, viz. the knowledge of God, of Christ, of man. The “Summa theologica” may he made a manual of piety as well as a text-book for the study of theology (Cf. Drane, op. cit., p. 446). St. Francis de Sales, St. Philip Neri, St. Charles Borromeo, St. Vincent Ferrer, St. Pius V, St. Antoninus constantly studied St. Thomas. Nothing could be more inspiring than his treatises on Christ, in His sacred Person, in His life and sufferings. His treatise on the sacraments, especially on penance and the Eucharist, would melt even hardened hearts. He takes pains to explain the various ceremonies of the Mass (“De ritu Eucharistiae” in Summa III:83), and no writer has explained more clearly than St. Thomas the effects produced in the souls of men by this heavenly Bread (Summa III:79). The principles recently urged, in regard to frequent Communion, by Pius X (“Sacra Trid. Synodus”, 1905) are found in St. Thomas (Summa III:79:8, III:80:10), although he is not so explicit on this point as he is on the Communion of children. In the Decree “Quam Singulari” (1910) the pope cites St. Thomas, who teaches that, when children begin to have some use of reason, so that they
IVb. INFLUENCE OF ST. THOMAS (ON INTELLECTUAL LIFE) Since the days of Aristotle, probably no one man has exercised such a powerful influence on the thinking world as did St. Thomas. His authority was very great during his lifetime. The popes, the universities, the studia of his order were anxious to profit by his learning and prudence. Several of his important works were written at the request of others, and his opinion was sought by all classes. On several occasions the doctors of Paris referred their disputes to him and gratefully abided by his decision (Vaughan, op. cit., II, 1 p. 544). His principles, made known by his writings, have continued to influence men even to this day. This subject cannot be considered in all its aspects, nor is that necessary. His influence on matters purely philosophical is fully explained in histories of philosophy. (Theologians who followed St. Thomas will be mentioned in THOMISM. See also ORDER OF PREACHERS — II, A, 2, d) His paramount importance and influence may be explained by considering him as the Christian Aristotle, combining in his person the best that the world has known in philosophy and theology. It is in this light that he is proposed as a model by Leo XIII in the famous Encyclical “Aeterni Patris”. The work of his life may be summed up in two propositions: he established the true relations between faith and reason; he systematized theology. (1) Faith and Reason The principles of St. Thomas on the relations between faith and reason were solemnly proclaimed in the Vatican Council. The second, third, and fourth chapters of the Constitution “Dei Filius” read like pages taken from the works of the Angelic Doctor. First, reason alone is not sufficient to guide men: they need Revelation; we must carefully distinguish the truths known by reason from higher truths (mysteries) known by Revelation. Secondly, reason and Revelation, though distinct, are not opposed to each other. Thirdly, faith preserves reason from error; reason should do service in the cause of faith. Fourthly, this service is rendered in three ways:
This is a development of St. Augustine’s famous saying (De Trin., XIV, c. i), that the right use of reason is “that by which the most wholesome faith is begotten . . . is nourished, defended, and made strong.” These principles are proposed by St. Thomas in many places, especially in the following: “In Boethium, da Trin. Proem.”, Q. ii, a. 1; “Sum. cont. gent.”, I, cc. iii-ix; Summa I:1:1, I:1:5, I:1:8, I:32:1, I:84:5. St. Thomas’s services to the Faith are thus summed up by Leo XIII in the Encyclical “Aeterni Patris”: “He won this title of distinction for himself: that singlehanded he victoriously combated the errors of former times, and supplied invincible arms to put to rout those which might in after times spring up. Again, clearly distinguishing, as is fitting, reason and faith, he both preserved and had regard for the rights of each; so much so, indeed, that reason, borne on the wings of Thomas, can scarcely rise higher, while faith could scarcely expect more or stronger aids from reason than those which she has already obtained through Thomas.” St. Thomas did not combat imaginary foes; he attacked living adversaries. The works of Aristotle had been introduced into France in faulty translations and with the misleading commentaries of Jewish and Moorish philosophers. This gave rise to a flood of errors which so alarmed the authorities that the reading of Aristotle’s Physics and Metaphysics was forbidden by Robert de Courçon in 1210, the decree being moderated by Gregory IX in 1231. There crept into the University of Paris an insidious spirit of irreverence and Rationalism, represented especially by Abelard and Raymond Lullus, which claimed that reason could know and prove all things, even the mysteries of Faith. Under the authority of Averroes dangerous doctrines were propagated, especially two very pernicious errors: first, that philosophy and religion being in different regions, what is true in religion might be false in philosophy; secondly, that all men have but one soul. Averroes was commonly styled “The Commentator”, but St. Thomas says he was “not so much a Peripatetic as a corruptor of Peripatetic philosophy” (Opuse. de unit. intell.). Applying a principle of St. Augustine (see I:84:5), following in the footsteps of Alexander of Hales and Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas resolved to take what was true from the “unjust possessors”, in order to press it into the service of revealed religion. Objections to Aristotle would cease if the true Aristotle were made known; hence his first care was to obtain a new translation of the works of the great philosopher. Aristotle was to be purified; false commentators were to be refuted; the most influential of these was Averroes, hence St. Thomas is continually rejecting his false interpretations. (2) Theology Systematized The next step was to press reason into the service of the Faith, by putting Christian doctrine into scientific form. Scholasticism does not consist, as some persons imagine, in useless discussions and subtleties, but in this, that it expresses sound doctrine in language which is accurate, clear, and concise. In the Encyclical “Aeterni Patris” Leo XIII, citing the words of Sixtus V (Bull “Triumphantis”, 1588), declares that to the right use of philosophy we are indebted for “those noble endowments which make Scholastic theology so formidable to the enemies of truth”, because “that ready coherence of cause and effect, that order and array of a disciplined army in battle, those clear definitions and distinctions, that strength of argument and those keen discussions by which light is distinguished from darkness, the true from the false, expose and lay bare, as it were, the falsehoods of heretics wrapped around by a cloud of subterfuges and fallacies”. When the great Scholastics had written, there was light where there had been darkness, there was order where confusion had prevailed. The work of St. Anselm and of Peter Lombard was perfected by the Scholastic theologians. Since their days no substantial improvements have been made in the plan and system of theology, although the field of apologetics has been widened, and positive theology has become more important.
IVc. INFLUENCE OF ST. THOMAS (HIS DOCTRINE FOLLOWED) Within a short time after his death the writings of St. Thomas were universally esteemed. The Dominicans naturally took the lead in following St. Thomas. The general chapter held in Paris in 1279 pronounced severe penalties against all who dared to speak irreverently of him or of his writings. The chapters held in Paris in 1286, at Bordeaux in 1287, and at Lucca in 1288 expressly required the brethren to follow the doctrine of Thomas, who at that time had not been canonized (Const. Ord. Praed., n. 1130). The University of Paris, on the occasion of Thomas’s death, sent an official letter of condolence to the general chapter of the Dominicans, declaring that, equally with his brethren, the university experienced sorrow at the loss of one who was their own by many titles (see text of letter in Vaughan, op. cit., II, p. 82). In the Encyclical “Aeterni Patris” Leo XIII mentions the Universities of Paris, Salamanca, Alcalá, Douai, Toulouse, Louvain, Padua, Bologna, Naples, Coimbra as “the homes of human wisdom where Thomas reigned supreme, and the minds of all, of teachers as well as of taught, rested in wonderful harmony under the shield and authority of the Angelic Doctor”. To the list may be added Lima and Manila, Fribourg and Washington. Seminaries and colleges followed the lead of the universities. The “Summa” gradually supplanted the “Sentences” as the textbook of theology. Minds were formed in accordance with the principles of St. Thomas; he became the great master, exercising a world-wide influence on the opinions of men and on their writings; for even those who did not adopt all of his conclusions were obliged to give due consideration to his opinions. It has been estimated that 6000 commentaries on St. Thomas’s works have been written. Manuals of theology and of philosophy, composed with the intention of imparting his teaching, translations, and studies, or digests (études), of portions of his works have been published in profusion during the last six hundred years and to-day his name is in honour all over the world (see THOMISM). In every one of the general councils held since his death St. Thomas has been singularly honoured. At the Council of Lyons his book “Contra errores Graecorum” was used with telling effect against the Greeks. In later disputes, before and during the Council of Florence, John of Montenegro, the champion of Latin orthodoxy, found St. Thomas’s works a source of irrefragable arguments. The “Decretum pro Armenis” (Instruction for the Armenians), issued by the authority of that council, is taken almost verbatim from his treatise, “De fidei articulis et septem sacramentis” (see Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 695). “In the Councils of Lyons, Vienne, Florence, and the Vatican”, writes Leo XIII (Encyclical “Aeterni Patris”), “one might almost say that Thomas took part in and presided over the deliberations and decrees of the Fathers contending against the errors of the Greeks, of heretics, and Rationalists, with invincible force and with the happiest results.” But the chief and special glory of Thomas, one which he has shared with none of the Catholic doctors, is that the Fathers of Trent made it part of the order of the conclave to lay upon the altar, together with the code of Sacred Scripture and the decrees of the Supreme Pontiffs, the Summa of Thomas Aquinas, whence to seek counsel, reason, and inspiration. Greater influence than this no man could have. Before this section is closed mention should be made of two books widely known and highly esteemed, which were inspired by and drawn from the writings of St. Thomas. The Catechism of the Council of Trent, composed by disciples of the Angelic Doctor, is in reality a compendium of his theology, in convenient form for the use of parish priests. Dante’s “Divina Commedia” has been called “the Summa of St. Thomas in verse”, and commentators trace the great Florentine poet’s divisions and descriptions of the virtues and vices to the “Secunda Secundae”.
IVd. INFLUENCE OF ST. THOMAS (APPRECIATION) (1) In the Church The esteem in which he was held during his life has not been diminished, but rather increased, in the course of the six centuries that have elapsed since his death. The position which he occupies in the Church is well explained by that great scholar Leo XIII, in the Encyclical “Aeterni Patris”, recommending the study of Scholastic philosophy: “It is known that nearly all the founders and framers of laws of religious orders commanded their societies to study and religiously adhere to the teachings of St. Thomas. . . To say nothing of the family of St. Dominic, which rightly claims this great teacher for its own glory, the statutes of the Benedictines, the Carmelites, the Augustinians, the Society of Jesus, and many others, all testify that they are bound by this law.” Amongst the “many others” the Servites, the Passionists, the Barnabites, and the Sulpicians have been devoted in an especial manner to the study of St. Thomas. The principal ancient universities where St. Thomas ruled as the great master have been enumerated above. The Paris doctors called him the morning star, the luminous sun, the light of the whole Church. Stephen, Bishop of Paris, repressing those who dared to attack the doctrine of “that most excellent Doctor, the blessed Thomas”, calls him “the great luminary of the Catholic Church, the precious stone of the priesthood, the flower of doctors, and the bright mirror of the University of Paris” (Drane, op. cit., p. 431). In the old Louvain University the doctors were required to uncover and bow their heads when they pronounced the name of Thomas (Goudin, op. cit., p. 21). “The ecumenical councils, where blossoms the flower of all earthly wisdom, have always been careful to hold Thomas Aquinas in singular honour” (Leo XIII in “Aeterni Patris”). This subject has been sufficiently treated above. The “Bullarium Ordinis Praedicatorum”, published in 1729-39, gives thirty-eight Bulls in which eighteen sovereign pontiffs praised and recommended the doctrine of St. Thomas (see also Vaughan, op. cit., II, c. ii; Berthier, op. cit., pp. 7 sqq.). These approbations are recalled and renewed by Leo XIII, who lays special stress on “the crowning testimony of Innocent VI: `His teaching above that of others, the canons alone excepted, enjoys such an elegance of phraseology, a method of statement, a truth of proposition, that those who hold it are never found swerving from the path of truth, and he who dare assail it will always be suspected of error (ibid.).'” Leo XIII surpassed his predecessors in admiration of St. Thomas, in whose works he declared a remedy can be found for many evils that afflict society (see Berthier, op. cit., introd.). The notable Encyclical Letters with which the name of that illustrious pontiff will always be associated show how he had studied the works of the Angelic Doctor. This is very noticeable in the letters on Christian marriage, the Christian constitution of states, the condition of the working classes, and the study of Holy Scripture. Pope Pius X, in several letters, e.g. in the “Pascendi Dominici Gregis” (September, 1907), has insisted on the observance of the recommendations of Leo XIII concerning the study of St. Thomas. An attempt to give names of Catholic writers who have expressed their appreciation of St. Thomas and of his influence would be an impossible undertaking; for the list would include nearly all who have written on philosophy or theology since the thirteenth century, as well as hundreds of writers on other subjects. Commendations and eulogies are found in the introductory chapters of all good commentaries. An incomplete list of authors who have collected these testimonies is given by Father Berthier (op. cit., p. 22). . . . (2) Outside the Church (a) Anti-Scholastics — Some persons have been and are still opposed to everything that comes under the name of Scholasticism, which they hold to be synonymous with subtleties and useless discussions. From the prologue to the “Summa” it is clear that St. Thomas was opposed to all that was superfluous and confusing in Scholastic studies. When people understand what true Scholasticism means, their objections will cease. (b) Heretics and Schismatics — “A last triumph was reserved for this incomparable man — namely, to compel the homage, praise, and admiration of even the very enemies of the Catholic name” (Leo XIII, ibid.). St. Thomas’s orthodoxy drew upon him the hatred of all Greeks who were opposed to union with Rome. The united Greeks, however, admire St. Thomas and study his works (see above Translations of the “Summa”). The leaders of the sixteenth-century revolt honoured St. Thomas by attacking him, Luther being particularly violent in his coarse invectives against the great doctor. Citing Bucer’s wild boast, “Take away Thomas and I will destroy the Church”, Leo XIII (ibid.) remarks, “The hope was vain, but the testimony has its value”. Calo, Tocco, and other biographers relate that St. Thomas, travelling from Rome to Naples, converted two celebrated Jewish rabbis, whom he met at the country house of Cardinal Richard (Prümmer, op. cit., p. 33; Vaughan, op. cit., I, p. 795). Rabbi Paul of Burgos, in the fifteenth century, was converted by reading the works of St. Thomas. Theobald Thamer, a disciple of Melancthon, abjured his heresy after he had read the “Summa”, which he intended to refute. The Calvinist Duperron was converted in the same way, subsequently becoming Archbishop of Sens and a cardinal (see Conway, O.P., op. cit., p. 96). After the bitterness of the first period of Protestantism had passed away, Protestants saw the necessity of retaining many parts of Catholic philosophy and theology, and those who came to know St. Thomas were compelled to admire him. Überweg says “He brought the Scholastic philosophy to its highest stage of development, by effecting the most perfect accommodation that was possible of the Aristotelian philosophy to ecclesiastical orthodoxy” (op. cit., p. 440). R. Seeberg in the “New Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopedia” (New York, 1911) devotes ten columns to St. Thomas, and says that “at all points he succeeded in upholding the church doctrine as credible and reasonable” (XI, p. 427). For many years, especially since the days of Pusey and Newman, St. Thomas has been in high repute at Oxford. Recently the “Summa contra gentiles” was placed on the list of subjects which a candidate may offer in the final honour schools of Litterae Humaniores at that university (cf. Walsh, op. cit., c. xvii). For several years Father De Groot, O.P., has been the professor of Scholastic philosophy in the University of Amsterdam, and courses in Scholastic philosophy have been established in some of the leading non-Catholic universities of the United States. Anglicans have a deep admiration for St. Thomas. Alfred Mortimer, in the chapter “The Study of Theology” of his work entitled “Catholic Faith and Practice” (2 vols., New York, 1909), regretting that “the English priest has ordinarily no scientific acquaintance with the Queen of Sciences”, and proposing a remedy, says, “The simplest and most perfect sketch of universal theology is to be found in the Summa of St. Thomas” (vol. II, pp. 454, 465).
V. ST. THOMAS AND MODERN THOUGHT In the Syllabus of 1864 Pius IX condemned a proposition in which it was stated that the method and principles of the ancient Scholastic doctors were not suited to the needs of our times and the progress of science (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1713). In the Encyclical “Aeterni Patris” Leo XIII points out the benefits to be derived from “a practical reform of philosophy by restoring the renowned teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas”. He exhorts the bishops to “restore the golden wisdom of Thomas and to spread it far and wide for the defence and beauty of the Catholic Faith, for the good of society, and for the advantage of all the sciences”. In the pages of the Encyclical immediately preceding these words he explains why the teaching of St. Thomas would produce such most desirable results: St. Thomas is the great master to explain and defend the Faith, for his is “the solid doctrine of the Fathers and the Scholastics, who so clearly and forcibly demonstrate the firm foundations of the Faith, its Divine origin, its certain truth, the arguments that sustain it, the benefits it has conferred on the human race, and its perfect accord with reason, in a manner to satisfy completely minds open to persuasion, however unwilling and repugnant”. The career of St. Thomas would in itself have justified Leo XIII in assuring men of the nineteenth century that the Catholic Church was not opposed to the right use of reason. The sociological aspects of St. Thomas are also pointed out: “The teachings of Thomas on the true meaning of liberty, which at this time is running into license, on the Divine origin of all authority, on laws and their force, on the paternal and just rule of princes, on obedience to the highest powers, on mutual charity one towards another — on all of these and kindred subjects, have very great and invincible force to overturn those principles of the new order which are well known to be dangerous to the peaceful order of things and to public safety” (ibid.). The evils affecting modern society had been pointed out by the pope in the Letter “Inscrutabili” of 21 April, 1878, and in the one on Socialism, Communism, and Nihilism (“The Great Encyclicals of Leo XIII”, pp. 9 sqq.; 22 sqq.). How the principles of the Angelic Doctor will furnish a remedy for these evils is explained here in a general way, more particularly in the Letters on the Christian constitution of states, human liberty, the chief duties of Christians as citizens, and on the conditions of the working classes (ibid., pp. 107, 135, 180, 208). It is in relation to the sciences that some persons doubt the reliability of St. Thomas’s writings; and the doubters are thinking of the physical and experimental sciences, for in metaphysics the Scholastics are admitted to be masters. Leo XIII calls attention to the following truths: (a) The Scholastics were not opposed to investigation. Holding as a principle in anthropology “that the human intelligence is only led to the knowledge of things without body and matter by things sensible, they well understood that nothing was of greater use to the philosopher than diligently to search into the mysteries of nature, and to be earnest and constant in the study of physical things” (ibid., p. 55). This principle was reduced to practice: St. Thomas, St. Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, and others “gave large attention to the knowledge of natural things” (ibid., p. 56). (b) Investigation alone is not sufficient for true science. “When facts have been established, it is necessary to rise and apply ourselves to the study of the nature of corporeal things, to inquire into the laws which govern them and the principles whence their order and varied unity and mutual attraction in diversity arise” (p. 55). Will the scientists of to-day pretend to be better reasoners than St. Thomas, or more powerful in synthesis? It is the method and the principles of St. Thomas that Leo XIII recommends: “If anything is taken up with too great subtlety by the Scholastic doctors, or too carelessly stated; if there be anything that ill agrees with the discoveries of a later age or, in a word, is improbable in any way, it does not enter into our mind to propose that for imitation to our age” (p. 56). Just as St. Thomas, in his day, saw a movement towards Aristotle and philosophical studies which could not be checked, but could be guided in the right direction and made to serve the cause of truth, so also, Leo XIII, seeing in the world of his time a spirit of study and investigation which might be productive of evil or of good, had no desire to check it, but resolved to propose a moderator and master who could guide it in the paths of truth. No better guide could have been chosen than the clear-minded, analytic, synthetic, and sympathetic Thomas Aquinas. His extraordinary patience and fairness in dealing with erring philosophers, his approbation of all that was true in their writings, his gentleness in condemning what was false, his clear-sightedness in pointing out the direction to true knowledge in all its branches, his aptness and accuracy in expressing the truth — these qualities mark him as a great master not only for the thirteenth century, but for all times. If any persons are inclined to consider him too subtle, it is because they do not know how clear, concise, and simple are his definitions and divisions. His two summae are masterpieces of pedagogy, and mark him as the greatest of human teachers. Moreover, he dealt with errors similar to many which go under the name of philosophy or science in our days. The Rationalism of Abelard and others called forth St. Thomas’s luminous and everlasting principles on the true relations of faith and reason. Ontologism was solidly refuted by St. Thomas nearly six centuries before the days of Malebranche, Gioberti, and Ubaghs (see Summa I:84:5). The true doctrine on first principles and on universals, given by him and by the other great Scholastics, is the best refutation of Kant’s criticism of metaphysical ideas (see, e.g., “Post. Analyt.”, I, lect. xix; “De ente et essentia”, c. iv; Summa I:17:3 corp. and ad 2um; I:79:3; I:84:5; I:84:6 corp and ad 1um; I:85:2 ad 2um; I:85:3 ad 1um, ad 4um; Cf. index to “Summa”: “Veritas”, “Principium”, “Universale”). Modern psychological Pantheism does not differ substantially from the theory of one soul for all men asserted by Averroes (see “De unit. intell.” and Summa I:76:2; I:79:5). The Modernistic error, which distinguishes the Christ of faith from the Christ of history, had as its forerunner the Averroistic principle that a thing might be true in philosophy and false in religion. In the Encyclical “Providentissimus Deus” (18 November, 1893) Leo XIII draws from St. Thomas’s writings the principles and wise rules which should govern scientific criticism of the Sacred Books. From the same source recent writers have drawn principles which are most helpful in the solution of questions pertaining to Spiritism and Hypnotism. Are we to conclude, then, that St. Thomas’s works, as he left them, furnish sufficient instruction for scientists, philosophers, and theologians of our times? By no means. Vetera novis augere et perficere — “To strengthen and complete the old by aid of the new” — is the motto of the restoration proposed by Leo XIII. Were St. Thomas living to-day he would gladly adopt and use all the facts made known by recent scientific and historical investigations, but he would carefully weigh all evidence offered in favour of the facts. Positive theology is more necessary in our days than it was in the thirteenth century. Leo XIII calls attention to its necessity in his Encyclical, and his admonition is renewed by Pius X in his Letter on Modernism. But both pontiffs declare that positive theology must not be extolled to the detriment of Scholastic theology. In the Encyclical “Pascendi”, prescribing remedies against Modernism, Pius X, following in this his illustrious predecessor, gives the first place to “Scholastic philosophy, especially as it was taught by Thomas Aquinas”, St. Thomas is still “The Angel of the Schools”. |
Born: 1225 at Roccasecca, Aquino, Naples, Italy
Died: March 7,1274 at Fossanuova near Terracina of apparent natural causes; relics at Saint-Servin, Toulouse, France
Canonized: July 18, 1323, John XXII enrolled him in the catalogue of the saints.
Patronage: Academics; against storms; against lightning; apologists; book sellers; Catholic academies; Catholic schools; Catholic universities; chastity; colleges; learning; lightning; pencil makers; philosophers; publishers; scholars; schools; storms; students; theologians; universities; University of Vigo
Representation: chalice; monstrance; ox; star; sun; teacher with pagan philosophers at his feet; teaching
Give It Up! Give It! Ash Wednesday ~ Br. Scott Brown, Novice
So……what are you giving up for Lent? Chocolate? Smoking? Soft drinks? Why are you giving those things up? Because you need to already? Because you need to lose a few pounds? What are you expected to get from this Lenten season?
Instead of giving UP something for Lent, how about just GIVING for Lent? Giving more time to prayer? To Bible Study? To serving other people? To making a difference in the world? Or just helping out your neighbor?
Matthew chapter six tells us how we should pray and give:
1“Be careful not to practice your righteousness in front of others to be seen by them. If you do, you will have no reward from your Father in heaven.
2 “So when you give to the needy, do not announce it with trumpets, as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and on the streets, to be honored by others. Truly I tell you, they have received their reward in full. 3 But when you give to the needy, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing, 4 so that your giving may be in secret. Then your Father, who sees what is done in secret, will reward you.
5 “And when you pray, do not be like the hypocrites, for they love to pray standing in the synagogues and on the street corners to be seen by others. Truly I tell you, they have received their reward in full. 6 But when you pray, go into your room, close the door and pray to your Father, who is unseen. Then your Father, who sees what is done in secret, will reward you.
If we practice our righteousness in front of others for all the world to see, then we are not truly sincere in our prayer and giving. These two acts should be deeply personal and kept between us and our Lord. Don’t rent a billboard and let the entire world know that you have given money or donated time to the homeless or needy. If you do, then you are only seeking attention for yourself and not for the glory of God. Give of yourself, give your time, lend your neighbor a hand. Help someone out who isn’t expecting your help, but who could benefit from a kind word or nice deed. Giving doesn’t have to be about money, but should be about giving of your time and of yourself to others and to the Lord.
What are you expecting to receive during Lent? What do you want? Where are you going to get it? Are you expecting to receive a blessing this Lenten season? If you are, what are you going to give up or sacrificing to receive your blessing? It’s not owed to you, you aren’t going to open the front door and find it sitting on your porch delivered by UPS or Fed Ex, and no personal messenger is going to bring it to your office. You have to go out and work for it, spread love and kindness to receive your blessing, share of yourself and your time, spend time with others and show them how God’s love can be a joyful and amazing force in their lives. Show them what a joyful and amazing force God’s love is in YOUR life. What we give up for Lent reminds us of what Jesus gave up for us. He gave everything so that we may have eternal life. We can give up a few hours or our time or a few dollars of our money so that others in need may feel loved and appreciated. Even if we do nothing more than just lend an ear to listen, or to sit and chat with someone who is lonely and who desires companionship, then we have done as Jesus did – we have given of ourselves so that others will not be without.
The glory of these forty days
we celebrate with songs of praise;
for Christ, through whom all things were made,
himself has fasted and has prayed.
Alone and fasting Moses saw
the loving God who gave the law;
and to Elijah, fasting, came
the steeds and chariots of flame.
So Daniel trained his mystic sight,
delivered from the lions’ might;
and John, the Bridegroom’s friend, became
the herald of Messiah’s name.
Then grant us, Lord, like them to be
full oft in fast and prayer with thee;
our spirits strengthen with thy grace,
and give us joy to see thy face.
O Father, Son, and Spirit blest,
to thee be every prayer addressed,
who art in three-fold Name adored,
from age to age, the only Lord.
Words: Latin, sixth century;
trans. Maurice F. Bell, 1906
God’s Tattoos ~ Br. Igor Kalinski, Novice
| Isaiah 49: 14-18 Zion said, “The Lord has forsaken me, the Lord has forgotten me.”15 “Can a mother forget the baby at her breast and have no compassion on the child she has borne? Though she may forget, I will not forget you! 16 See, I have engraved you on the palms of my hands; your walls are ever before me. 17 Your children hasten back, and those who laid you waste depart from you. 18 Lift up your eyes and look around; all your children gather and come to you. As surely as I live,” declares the Lord, “you will wear them all as ornaments; you will put them on, like a bride. Israel was in trouble. Again. It seems that “God’s people” would never learn that they were, indeed, God’s people. Like many people today who ignore God, pretend God doesn’t exist, or simply don’t care whether God is around or not until something goes terribly wrong and then they start praying and asking for prayer, the Israelites had come to their senses and had started asking God for help……and this time they were truly concerned that God had given up on them. Forgot about them. Isaiah speaks to the people and assures them that God will deliver his people. Isaiah assures the people that the Redeemer of Israel will come in the day of salvation for his people. He reminds them that in times of captivity, in times of terror by kings and princes, if they but worship God, who is faithful, a very powerful word will be placed in their hearts. He reminds them that God is faithful, and that in the past they escaped from one place to another. When the nation is faced with devastation , occupation, and deportation by king Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon and his army, the people of Israel thought “Has God has forgot us?” but God says through the prophet Isaiah ‘me forget you?” Have you ever seen someone with a loved one’s name tattooed on their arm? What about the guy with his children’s picture tattooed on his shoulder? Verses 15 and 16 of today’s passage tell us that God has US tattooed in the palms of His hands. We are ever with God and he cannot forget about us. Any storm shows us God’s voice and demonstrates His power. We might ask, “Lord, have you forgot?” We wonder how He can be present in the middle of your trials and in the midst of the intensity of the storm. You, however, remain first in God’s thoughts. He thinks of you, maintains you, gives comfort, and gives you strength. When you are going through the worst that can you can go through, know that God has not forgotten you, and will never forget you.
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Blessed Christopher of Milan
Nothing is known of the early years of Blessed Christopher. He received the Dominican habit in the convent of San Eustorgio in Milan, Italy, in the early 15th century. He is recorded as being “holy and abstemious, humble and studious”–the ordinary virtues that we have come to take for granted among the beati; there is nothing to indicate the type of person Christopher was, or what peculiar circumstances might have led him to the Dominicans. He is noted especially for his preaching and for his gift of prophecy.
The age in which Christopher lived was a rough and dangerous one, and a time for prophets and penitents to thrive. He was himself an apostolic preacher throughout Liguria and the Milanese, famous for the impact of his sermons on sinners. He had a vivid power of description and this, coupled with his gift of prophecy, made his sermons unforgettable.
Christopher worked in many parts of Italy, but his name is particularly venerated in Taggia, where he spent many years. As a result of his preaching, the people of Taggia built a monastery and church dedicated to Our Lady of Mercy and Christopher became its first abbot. A great wave of spiritual revival was felt in Taggia during his tenure, but he was not optimistic about the future.
In a vision he saw that most of the population would be carried off by plague. Twenty years before anyone was paying any attention to the Turks, he told the people of Taggia that Turks would invade the city, and they did, as he had prophesied. A disastrous flood swept the area, fulfilling another of his prophesies. He wrote four volumes of sermon aids, containing scriptural examples and quotations from the Fathers of the Church.
In 1484, when he was absent from Taggia preaching a mission, Christopher fell ill and knew that he was about to die. He insisted on returning to his own monastery at Taggia. There he received the last sacraments and immediately died (Benedictines, Dorcy).
Born: In the early part of the 15th century
Died: 1484 at Our Lady of Mercy convent, Taggia, Italy of natural causes
Beatified: 1875 by Pope Pius IX (cultus confirmed)
God In Our Friends~ by Fr. Bryan Wolf
“God is love. Whoever lives in love lives in God, and God in them.” 1 John 4:16
February 3rd is the day we celebrate the life Saint Aelred, Abbot of Rievaulx ( pronounced ree-VOH ). It is the saint he to whom I chose to dedicate my ministry, and to name my parish community for. Perhaps a subliminal message here, as Aelred was believed to have been homosexual and I am a gay man. I found it interesting that a gay man with a deep spirituality in God could so move the masses, to become a saint. But years of research on Saint Aelred has confirmed my attraction and respect for him above and beyond our sharing a sexual orientation. I have come to admire him greatly, and strive to reflect his love for God and his love for his friends.
Born in England in 1109, Aelred was the youngest of three brothers blessed to Eilaf, a married priest of St. Andrew’s at Hexham. Aelred apprenticed as a squire and steward, and eventually rose to appointment as the “Master of the House” to King David I of Scotland. Following his personal call to live the life of a religious, Aelred left the service of King David to enter the service of God; being ordained priest in 1134. He professed himself to the Cistercian Order of monks and rose in popularity based upon his reputation of being a great teacher. He became known as “the Saint Bernard of England”, having caused the Cistercian Order to increase in number and influence. He eventually became elected Abbot of the Cistercian’s largest monastery, that being at Rievaulx, a position he was to hold for the rest of his life. During his tenure this monastery was home to more than 350 monks.
Without doubt, his repute of being a renowned theologian and his ability to reduce his spirituality to easily understood words impacted many who sought him out and many vowed to the Order. His gift of the written word came to culmination when both King Henry II and King Edward the Confessor sought him out as well to record their biographies. In fact, so impressed and enamored was King Edward that he had Aelred preach at Westminster Abbey in his later years.
Outstanding among his countless works, are the two for which Aelred is most remembered; De Spirituali Amicita ( Our Spiritual Friendships c.1164 ) and Speculum caritatis ( Mirror of Charity c.1142 ). In both these treatises, Aelred reaffirms his most profound position- it is only by and in our love for our friends, that we can know and love God. “…[c]ome to love and be charitable to each other, then will the love and grace of God be blessed upon you.”
Throughout his life, Saint Aelred maintained that the only viable evidence of a living loving God “…beyond the beauty and wonder of nature and creation, was the love exchanged in friendship. In friendship, God lives with us and through us. Only with genuine friendship and fidelity, can we truly know God and his love for us!” He held up as evidence of this, the growing number of religious who vowed to the Order and sought to be amongst those there at Rievaulx. “I find within this place, a reverence which radiates from my brothers and warms me as if I am held in the embrace of God himself; there is protection and inspiration.”
Even in his time there was speculation that Aelred was perhaps homosexual as were those who sought his confidence. Aelred did not withdraw from these accusations, but met them full on with possibly his most prominent stand on the subject in his work Mirror of Charity- “Some emotions are not ours to command. Many will pass judgment, even in the midst of my tears that my love is to real. Let them judge as they will. But you my Lord, with your divine mercy, see not what is only outward but what is within. So then, I love those that God calls for me to love. I reach out to hold the hand that God reaches out for me to grasp, to cherish those God calls for me to cherish. A friend cleaving to friend, in the spirit of Christ.”
Ultimately this is Christ’s charge to us: ” A new command I give you- love one another. As I have loved you, so must you love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another. ” John 13:34-35 “
For it is in the love, care and respect that we have for our friends that we find the true existence of God- His embrace, His warmth and His love for us. From our friends we draw our strength and comfort. In their laughter, we can hear God’s laughter. In their words, we can hear God’s word of encouragement and consolation. In their friendship God lives and God loves!
Santus Aelred, amicus Christi. Rogo oramus, ut nos ero similis vobis. Meritum Christi, et gratiam amicorum.
Saint Aelred, friend of Christ. Intercede we pray, that we may be like you, deserving of Christ and the grace of friends.
_________________________________
Reference material: Aelred of Rievaulx- The Way of Friendship, selected spiritual writings. Fr. M. Basil Pennington. New City Press. Hyde Park, NY. (c) 2001. ISBN 1-565348-128-3
Blessed Are the WHO??? ~ The Very Rev. Lady Sherwood
Matthew 5
King James Version (KJV)
5 And seeing the multitudes, he went up into a mountain: and when he was set, his disciples came unto him:
2 And he opened his mouth, and taught them, saying,
3 Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
4 Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted.
5 Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth.
6 Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled.
7 Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy.
8 Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God. 9 Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of God.
10 Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteousness’ sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
11 Blessed are ye, when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake.
12 Rejoice, and be exceeding glad: for great is your reward in heaven: for so persecuted they the prophets which were before you.
When we look to classify ourselves as happy or successful, what do we tend to measure? Is it the more materialistic things in the world or the true happiness and success that only God can give us?
Far too many times in our world today, happiness and success is seen as how much wealth we have, the type and size of our homes and cars, what job position or title we have, or how many holidays we can enjoy taking. These are not the ways in which we should see TRUE happiness and success, as this can only come from having God in our hearts and lives and by following his teachings to us.
Jesus Christ also once set down eight principles for the measure of a person’s happiness and success. His standards stand in stark contrast to the aforementioned. There would appear to be an extremely wide difference between the popular image of the successful and happy person and what God sees it to actually mean.
At the beginning of Jesus’s ministry when gaining in popularity, he delivered a sermon to the multitudes from the quiet of the rolling grassy hills of northern Israel, by the Sea of Galilee. Listening to this sermon were rich and poor, young and old, varied races, those who were astute business men and those who were failures. In fact, the crowd that Jesus spoke to that day represented the world in miniature form.
Yet, as different as they all were, Jesus understood that they were all on the same quest. They were all after the same thing. They all wanted happiness and success. Well, we are just like them aren’t we? Isn’t that what we want for ourselves? Isn’t that what we ultimately want for our children?
“Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.” The first step on the path to the Kingdom of God is recognition that one is spiritually poor. The poor in spirit know there are few spiritual resources in themselves. They know they need help from above. The poor in spirit KNOW they need the Kingdom of God. Others don’t understand that need or don’t want to acknowledge the need because they think they can save themselves on their own and don’t want the Kingdom. God doesn’t force His kingdom, but he does gladly give it to all who know they’re losers without Him and humbly seek His help.
With pride gone, trust in self, intellect, and possessions gone, one is ready to mourn. Jesus says, “Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted.” When Jesus says those who mourn, he isn’t talking about a bunch of people who are just sitting around crying. One who mourns is one who is moved to express deep concern. One who mourns is one who is really grieved that things are way they are. The mournful take no joy in idly contemplating their miserable failures. The mournful aren’t content to say “that’s the way things are, there’s nothing I can really do about it.” Those who mourn are sick and they know it, and they want to get well. One who mourns is concerned to the point of action, which explains why they shall be comforted. There is hope in action, that things that are wrong can be changed, and as kingdom people those who mourn live with the promise that things will not always be as they are.
Jesus moves then from the mournful to the meek saying “Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth.” When Jesus says “meek” he’s not talking about a bunch of pushovers. Meekness is that mysterious ingredient which baffles the high and mighty of this world. The meek surrender their will so completely that their will becomes God’s will, that whoever fights them is fighting against God. Surrendered human will is the agency through which God’s power is released upon the earth. This is why the meek inherit the earth. Only the totally committed are considered worthy of inheritance of God’s kingdom on earth.
Then Jesus told the crowd that “Those who hunger and thirst for righteousness are blessed, for they will be filled.” Religious life in Jesus’ day emphasized the external. Many people obeyed the Jewish Law because they were expected to, not necessarily because they really believed in it. Many were motivated by a sense of reward or were motivated by earning the praise of others. Jesus was aware of the prevailing hunger and thirst for what everyone called righteousness, but was really praise.
Kingdom citizens who had really submitted themselves to God would have a deep desire for righteousness of the Kingdom instead of a mock hunger for what had been called righteousness. Such imitation righteousness, humanity’s empty praise, never did and never would satisfy the inner craving of the soul. This is not the case with inward, vital, and joyous righteousness rooted in the true love of God and neighbor, not worldly praise. This righteousness yields fullness and fulfillment that are beyond anything humans can offer.
Next Jesus says “Blessed are the merciful, for they will receive mercy.” Mercy is warm, compassionate, tender, and never seeks to barter. Mercy isn’t offered expecting something in return. The merciful want to gladly share all that they have with others and with the world. To the merciful, people aren’t beggars to whom one gives a part, but are brothers and sisters with whom one shares all. A secret has been revealed to those who are merciful. True joy and fulfillment can be found in sharing generously of what one has, but that secret will be lost if the merciful become miserly with their resources. In his first letter John captures the spirit of this Beatitude when he asks: “How does God’s love abide in anyone who has the world’s goods and sees a brother or sister in need and yet refuses to help?”
Jesus then speaks of the pure of heart. He says they will see God. Kingdom people exhibit an honest desire for real righteousness. A pure heart is a new nature formed in us, not something we create ourselves. A pure heart is a gift from the father to those who want it. A pure heart fosters the desire in us to break away from sin in all its many forms. A pure heart will help us break away from our former masters. Kingdom people can’t have one god for inside and one god for outside.
Having more than one master makes life confused and tense. Having to keep our eyes focused on more than one master makes us cross-eyed, and causes our vision to be so blurred that we can’t see anything clearly. The eyes of the pure in heart are singly focused. Their sight isn’t impaired. This is why Jesus said they would see God.
Jesus says, “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God.” Peacemaking is what God does. God is bent on the salvation of the world. That’s why he sent His only Son to save us. Peacemakers are those with God in this plan of redeeming the world. God’s plan of peacemaking isn’t merely to bring about an outward settlement between evil people, God wants instead to create a people of goodwill. Peacemakers are agents of the Kingdom of God, which alone is capable of bringing true peace. It’s hard to ignore and to be indifferent to a body of Christians living as peacemakers. The peacemakers confront the world with an entirely different way of life, a new way of thinking, a changed set of values, and a higher standard of righteousness. And in this new way of living, the peacemakers may seem subversive to those loyal to the world.
Finally, Jesus says, “Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are you when people revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you.” Jesus says that Kingdom people very well may get persecuted by those who still uphold the world’s standards. Jesus is often accused of being a visionary. He was, in fact, the world’s greatest realist. Jesus wasn’t blind to the explosive nature of the things he was preaching and teaching. He knew it would lead to his own persecution and death. He knew that the Kingdom of the Spirit and Truth was the mortal enemy to systems built on power, greed, oppression, and falsehood. Jesus knew that conflict was inevitable, but offers solace to those who keep the faith in the face of difficult times. Persecution is terrible, but the emptiness of faithlessness is far worse.
If we truly listen to the word of God and follow it in our hearts and in our lives, we will then find the only true happiness and success.
Water, water every where!
“Water, water, every where,
Nor any drop to drink.”
These last few days, this small bit of poetry has been running through my head. It is a few lines of a longer poem, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (originally The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere) by the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, written in 1797–98. Though I am sure Mr. Coleridge could never imagined how pertinant his poem is to our modern times. This has been the situation in my part of the world. Here in West Virginia, for the last week, we have been under a water crisis. A chemical was leaked in to our water supply, and a water ban was issued for over 300,000 people. Not only did this affect individual households, but schools, hospitals, restaurants. The impact of this water ban has made me realize how something we all take for granted, meaning clean, safe drinking water, is actually a luxury. Of course we all see the commercials about children in other parts of the world, who need clean drinking water, but what happens when you are the one needing water? You can’t bathe, wash your hands, cook, do laundry, etc. All restaurants are shut down, the store shelves are cleared of their current stock of bottled water, and hospitals emergency rooms begin filling up with patients who appear to be suffering the effects from accidentally drinking the toxic water. Thank goodness outside agencies and individuals began pouring resources in to our state, providing cases of bottled water, huge tanks of water, and other items people may need. The outpouring of geneerosity, kindness, and help has been overwhelming.
As the water ban began lifting for a few cities , and we began the long process of flushing our pipes, and any appliances that use water, a sense of normalcy is begins to return to our state, but the lasting affects of the water crisis will be felt for a very long time. Never again will I take this precious resource for granted. Since water has beeen on my mind this past week, I was curious as to how many times water was mentioned in the Bible. Well, seems quite a bit. Water is mentioned 722 times, more than faith or hope. Which serves as a reminder as to how important this liquid is to not only our life, but also our very salvation. I have listed here a few Bible verses where water is mentioned, in no particular order.
John 4:14 – But whosoever drinketh of the water that I shall give him shall never thirst; but the water that I shall give him shall be in him a well of water springing up into everlasting life.
Ezekiel 36:25 – Then will I sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean: from all your filthiness, and from all your idols, will I cleanse you.
John 7:38 – He that believeth on me, as the scripture hath said, out of his belly shall flow rivers of living water.
Isaiah 43:2 – When thou passest through the waters, I [will be] with thee; and through the rivers, they shall not overflow thee: when thou walkest through the fire, thou shalt not be burned; neither shall the flame kindle upon thee.
Revelation 21:6 – And he said unto me, It is done. I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end. I will give unto him that is athirst of the fountain of the water of life freely.
Matthew 3:16 – And Jesus, when he was baptized, went up straightway out of the water: and, lo, the heavens were opened unto him, and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove, and lighting upon him:
Exodus 17:1 – And all the congregation of the children of Israel journeyed from the wilderness of Sin, after their journeys, according to the commandment of the LORD, and pitched in Rephidim: and [there was] no water for the people to drink.
Genesis 1:9 – And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry [land] appear: and it was so.
Revelation 16:4 – And the third angel poured out his vial upon the rivers and fountains of waters; and they became blood.
John 3:5 – Jesus answered, Verily, verily, I say unto thee, Except a man be born of water and [of] the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God.
Numbers 20:11 – And Moses lifted up his hand, and with his rod he smote the rock twice: and the water came out abundantly, and the congregation drank, and their beasts [also].
Revelation 8:11 – And the name of the star is called Wormwood: and the third part of the waters became wormwood; and many men died of the waters, because they were made bitter.
As detailed in these verses, it is made plain how not only is water critical to our very existence, but also a way to seek salvation., through baptism. I believe my favorite verse is:
John 4:14 – But whosoever drinketh of the water that I shall give him shall never thirst; but the water that I shall give him shall be in him a well of water springing up into everlasting life.
Next time you turn on your tap, to either get a drink or wash your hands, think how this simple fluid, is actually a life-giving resource that should never be taken for granted. I know that I will never look at clean water as just a convenience, but will see it as a generous gift from our Creator.
From Trash to Treasure…Our Story…
Therefore if there is any encouragement in Christ, if there is any consolation of love, if there is any fellowship of the Spirit, if any affection and compassion, make my joy complete by being of the same mind, maintaining the same love, united in spirit, intent on one purpose. Do nothing from selfishness or empty conceit, but with humility of mind regard one another as more important than yourselves; do not merely look out for your own personal interests, but also for the interests of others. Philippians 2:1-4 NASB
Have you ever been dumpster diving? Junk hunting? Been to a thrift store? Picked up something off the street or in an alley that had been discarded? A few years ago, there was a show on HGTV titled, “Trash to Treasures.” The premise of the show was that one could take cast-off items; things found in alleys, junk stores, and dumpsters, and turn them into beautiful and useful items.
Well…………
Once upon a time, a few days more than a year ago, there was a little group of wandering clergy who had been kicked out of their home church by The Dark Side of the Force. They had worked and worked and worked for the benefit of their Lord, and had fought to keep all that is Holy, just that, Holy. They had endeavored to do what was right, and beautiful, and good. And for this, they had been turned out into the cold, dark world, with no where to turn. They were dismayed, upset, and confused.
Where would they go? What would they do? How would their ministries survive? Should they huddle together against the Evil Forces who had besieged them and set out on their own? Should they seek refuge elsewhere? Was their ministry to be ended? Had all their efforts been for naught? Would the devil win?
In cases of true and sincere faith, the devil seldom wins, and certainly, most definitely, not in this case. That little group of wandering Dominicans was rescued by Christ and His Church. And so……
It is with great joy and happiness that on this, the first anniversary of The Order of Preachers, Old Catholic becoming part of The International Old Catholic Churches, that we reflect on the following:
In the past 12 months, we have gone from 3 wandering Dominicans, to a strong Priory of nine, located on 2 different continents, in three countries, with a few aspirants waiting in the wings. We are blessed to have 3 Deacons, and 3 Vicars General numbered in our group, one of whom is a Bishop-elect. One of our members is the Chair of the Commission on Ordained Ministries. Our order is responsible for several of the classes offered by The Old Catholic Institute, and most of our members have begun seminary classes. We have been blessed to contribute financially to the well being of the National Church and its members. Our members are regular contributors to the ISM Magazine, “Convergent Streams.” Our website has published over 300 posts and received innumerable prayer requests. Our members have planted chapels, and are active in numerous ministries and chaplaincies.
The above sounds as if we are bragging about the events of the past year. Truly, we are not. Until I had to sit down and write this, I’d not realized what we, as an Order, have done this year. I am truly, honestly, and sincerely amazed at what Christ has done, and is doing in our lives. Like over-used clay vessels, we were broken, called useless, cast aside, and thrown away. We were trash. And then, something amazing happened. We were taken out of the dumpster and recycled. Christ was able to pick us up, put us back together, mend the broken parts, and repurpose, re-use, and recycle us. And we are stronger and more useful servants of Christ for it.
And, just as precious metals are refined, and old, broken jewelry can be melted down and made into something even more beautiful, Christ has done so with us. As Isaiah says: Behold, I have refined you, but not as silver; I have tried you in the furnace of affliction. Isaiah 48:10 esv
And from Zechariah:
And I will put this third into the fire, and refine them as one refines silver, and test them as gold is tested. They will call upon my name, and I will answer them. I will say, ‘They are my people’; and they will say, ‘The Lord is my God.’” Zechariah 13:9 esv
We, The Order of Preachers, Old Catholic, The Dominican Order of The International Old Catholic Churches, are living proof of the miracles of God’s love.
Are you broken? Do you need a purpose? Have you felt lost and wondered from whence you can find comfort and help? Won’t you give it all to Christ? Let him help mend you, and show you how wonderful life with Him can be. Come, join us in our journey, to love and to serve Our Lord, with gladness and singleness of heart.
Amen.
I Heard the Bells~ by Fr. Bryan Wolf
“I heard the bells on Christmas day. Their old familiar carols play, and wild and sweet the words repeat- of peace on earth, good will to men!”
We awoke this morning and the world was different. Magical. Joyous. Something special in the air. The sounds of church bells. The sounds of children’s laughter, family chatter and holiday greetings from just about everyone! It is Christmas Day!
There is no other day like Christmas Day. As far back as our childhood memories can take us, Christmas Day is special. A gathering of family and friends. Toys and gifts scattered about hidden beneath mountains of wrapping paper. Smells of pine from the tree mix with tempting smells from the oven. And Christmas carols, everywhere- on the radio and television and overflowing from Church. They sing from my lips, dance in my ears and rejoice in my heart! Wonderful familiar tunes, bringing back more memories of youth and loved ones departed.
“I thought as how, this day had come, the belfries of all Christendom- had rolled along the unbroken song- of peace on earth, good will to men.”
Christmas Day! The birth of Jesus Christ, our Lord! Not just in my home or town, but everywhere. Everywhere! Across the globe, in whatever time zone- Christians- “all of Christendom” are like me, celebrating Christmas. The magic and wonder is everywhere. That childish joy and anticipation of the day is everywhere. And everywhere Christians are recalling how the birth of Christ has changed the world. How Christ offers us hope and renewal. How Christ came to live among us, be with us and love us. How Christ came to teach us lessons for life and give us His promise for everlasting life. All of this possible- all of this promise, from that wondrous birth in the manger at Bethlehem more than two thousand years ago!
“And in despair I bowed my head, there is no peace on earth I said. For hate is strong and mocks the song, of peace on earth, good will to men.”
Wait, the joy of Christmas? Wars continue. The Middle East, as it has been for decades, is a mess. North Korea and Iran keep popping up into the news threatening the nightmare of nuclear weapons. I also cannot escape the television news coverage of senseless shootings- in our schools, communities and college campuses. I was a police officer for thirty years- I do not understand this violence.
Violence, that word alone is all that is needed to shatter my Christmas joy. Wandering gangs of youth now play a mindless game of hitting strangers to see if they can knock them out with one punch. I do not understand. A homeless man in Hoboken NJ was recently killed this way.
Homeless, there too another word- another issue to intrude its reality into the joy of my Christmas. There is no media coverage here. Thousands spend this Christmas without homes, hot meals or the simplest comfort. How can I go around singing about joy, peace and good will? It is almost as if I can hear Satan himself laughing in ridicule- “for hate is strong and mocks the song…” “Celebrate the birth of your Messiah” Satan rebukes me, “you have learned nothing from him.” In despair I bow my head. Where is my compassion? Where is my love? Who is my neighbor? How can I help him?
“Then pealed the bless more loud and deep: God is not dead, nor does he sleep. The wrong shall fail, the right prevail- with peace on earth, good will to men!”
Wait, get thee behind me Satan- God is not dead! God lives! God is here with me- with us now! We are the instruments of His work. It is we who must accomplish Christ’s acts of mercy. It is we who must clothe the naked, feed the hungry and give drink to those who are thirsty- both literally and spiritually. It is we who must pray for and call for, peace. It is we who must demand equality and accountability. God demands these things. God requires us intercede.
So this is the joy of Christmas. I can see Jesus smiling down upon me. He tasks me not to forget the broken of spirit. He invites me to reach out to them- the lost, the lonely, the addicted, the distraught. Share with them the Good News! That is what His Gospel means, good news! Be not weary or poor of spirit- the angel brings “good news which shall be for all people. That today is born in the town of David, a Savior- he is the Messiah, Christ the Lord.” (Luke 2:10-11)
So I wish to you, my brothers and sisters in Christ- the most joyous and blessed Christmas Day! God is not dead, nor does He sleep. He lives with us and through us. Let us go forth from today and into the New Year- with His greatest Christmas gift to us- the Good News which shall be for all people– Christ is born! Christ lives! Christ loves!
…. and on earth, peace and good will to men. Amen.
The Order of Preachers, Independent 
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